The Second Agricultural Revolution was a major transformation in farming practices across Great Britain and Western Europe. Spanning from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, this period fundamentally altered how food was produced and distributed. It established the scientific and technological foundation for modern agriculture, moving away from centuries of traditional, low-yield methods. This agricultural shift generated unprecedented food supplies, creating the necessary conditions for the subsequent societal changes of the Industrial Revolution.
Key Innovations in Farming Techniques
The dramatic increase in agricultural output was driven by the systematic application of new techniques and early mechanization. A major breakthrough was the widespread adoption of the Norfolk four-course rotation, which replaced the medieval three-field system that required leaving one-third of the land fallow each year. This new system rotated four crops—wheat, turnips, barley, and clover—over four years, ensuring the land was continuously productive. The inclusion of turnips provided winter fodder for livestock, while clover, a legume, naturally fixed nitrogen into the soil, acting as a fertilizer for the subsequent wheat crop.
Mechanization began with inventions like Jethro Tull’s seed drill, perfected in 1701, which dramatically improved planting efficiency. Before this, seeds were wastefully scattered by hand, a method known as broadcasting. Tull’s horse-drawn machine planted seeds in neat rows at a consistent depth and spacing, which significantly reduced seed waste and increased the germination rate and overall yield. The straight rows also made it possible to use horse-drawn hoes for weeding between the crops, further improving plant health and productivity.
Improvements in livestock husbandry also contributed substantially to the revolution’s success. Agriculturalists like Robert Bakewell pioneered the systematic practice of selective breeding for commercial purposes. Bakewell separated male and female animals to control mating, focusing on traits that produced larger, healthier animals with better meat and carcass quality. His work with New Leicester sheep and Dishley Longhorn cattle led to farm animals that matured faster and provided a greater yield of meat, wool, or dairy, improving the overall quality of the national diet.
The Enclosure Movement and Commercialization
The structural change in land ownership was as significant as the technological innovations in driving agricultural productivity. The Enclosure Movement, particularly in Britain, involved a series of Parliamentary Acts that legally consolidated the scattered strips of land and common fields into large, privately owned farms. This process ended the traditional open-field system, which had previously allowed small farmers and peasants to graze animals and gather resources on communal land. The newly enclosed, consolidated fields were easier to manage and provided a strong incentive for large landowners to invest capital in the new machinery and techniques, such as the four-course rotation.
This shift marked the transition from subsistence farming to commercial farming, where the primary goal was profit and market sale. Large landowners could now experiment with new crops and scientific methods without needing the consent of the entire village community. However, the enclosure process came at a high social cost, stripping many smallholders and landless laborers of their traditional rights and means of economic independence. Displaced farmers were forced to become wage laborers or seek opportunities elsewhere, fundamentally changing the rural social structure.
The Symbiotic Link to the Industrial Revolution
The agricultural and industrial transformations were deeply interconnected, with each revolution fueling the other in a mutually beneficial cycle. The massive increase in food production created an agricultural surplus, meaning fewer people were needed to work the land to feed the growing population. This surplus of food was a prerequisite for industrialization, as it ensured that the burgeoning urban factory workforce could be reliably fed.
The displacement of small farmers due to the Enclosure Movement created a large, available labor pool that migrated to the towns and cities. This surplus of rural workers provided the necessary hands for the new factories and mines of the Industrial Revolution. Conversely, industrial advancements directly benefited agriculture by providing better tools and infrastructure. Improved iron and steel production supplied materials for more durable plows and mechanized equipment, such as the steam-powered thresher, while canals and railways allowed products to be transported quickly to expanding urban centers.
Demographic and Societal Consequences
A significant population boom across Europe was a primary consequence of the Second Agricultural Revolution. The increased reliability of the food supply led to better overall nutrition and a sharp decline in devastating famines. This improved diet contributed to a drop in death rates, particularly infant mortality, and a general increase in life expectancy.
As fewer laborers were required on the increasingly efficient and mechanized farms, a large-scale rural-to-urban migration began. Displaced agricultural workers moved to cities in search of employment, driving the rapid growth of urban centers and fundamentally changing the distribution of the population. This urbanization was a direct consequence of agricultural efficiency and the industrial demand for factory workers. The revolution established a food system capable of sustaining a large, non-agricultural population, setting the stage for the modern, industrialized world.