Bread is a foundational food across global cultures and one of the oldest prepared foods. It is a dough that is baked, steamed, or fried, transforming raw materials into a satisfying food. The process relies on core ingredients that create the structure, texture, and flavor.
The Foundation: Flour
Flour is the primary structural component of nearly all bread, providing the necessary proteins and starches. Wheat flour is the most common choice because it contains glutenin and gliadin, which form gluten when hydrated. This gluten network gives bread its elasticity, allowing the dough to stretch and hold its shape.
When flour is mixed with water and kneaded, the proteins link together to form interconnected strands. This structure traps the gas produced during fermentation, creating the open, airy texture known as the crumb. The amount of protein influences the final loaf; high-protein flour yields a chewier loaf, while lower-protein flour results in a softer texture.
Grains like rye and barley form a weaker gluten structure, leading to denser bread. Alternative flours, such as rice or corn, lack the necessary gluten-forming proteins, requiring the addition of binders. The starch absorbs water during baking and reinforces the gluten network as the dough solidifies.
The Catalyst: Leavening Agents
Leavening introduces gas into the dough, causing it to rise and become light rather than dense. The most common leavening agent is baker’s yeast, which feeds on the sugars in the flour. Yeast converts these sugars into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol through fermentation.
The carbon dioxide gas is trapped by the elastic gluten network, causing the dough to expand. This fermentation also produces organic acids, which develop the complex flavor and aroma of the finished bread. Yeast activity is sensitive to temperature, thriving in warm conditions but dying off above 135°F (57°C).
Some breads rely on natural leavening, such as a sourdough starter, which is a culture of wild yeast and bacteria. The bacteria produce lactic and acetic acids, contributing a distinct tangy flavor. For quick breads, chemical leaveners like baking soda or baking powder are used, releasing carbon dioxide immediately upon contact with liquid or heat.
Essential Supporting Ingredients
Water and salt are necessary for the dough. Water serves as the solvent that activates the yeast and allows the gluten-forming proteins to combine. The amount of water controls the dough’s consistency; higher hydration leads to a more open crumb structure but a trickier dough to handle.
Salt is included for flavor enhancement and fermentation control. Without salt, bread tastes bland, as the mineral brings out the subtle flavors of the wheat and fermentation by-products. Salt strengthens the gluten network, making the dough more resilient and better able to trap gas.
Salt also regulates the yeast’s activity by creating osmotic pressure, slowing down yeast metabolism. This controlled, slower fermentation prevents the dough from over-rising and allows more time for complex flavors to develop. Salt is typically added at about 2% of the flour’s weight.
Enriching and Flavoring Additions
Optional ingredients are incorporated to modify the texture, flavor, and shelf life of the bread. Fats, such as butter or oil, are added to tenderize the crumb by coating the gluten strands, preventing overly tight bonds. This results in a softer, finer-grained loaf and helps slow the staling process.
Sugars and sweeteners, including honey, serve as an immediate food source for the yeast, accelerating fermentation. They also contribute to the browning of the crust through caramelization and the Maillard reaction. High concentrations of sugar can slow the rise by drawing water away from the yeast.
Ingredients like milk and eggs are used in enriched doughs, such as brioche, to add richness and softness. Milk solids and eggs contribute fat and protein, which further tenderize the dough and improve the crust color.
Inclusions are mixed into the dough to provide textural contrast and specific flavor profiles. These include:
- Seeds
- Nuts
- Dried fruits
- Herbs